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Richter, D. J., & Levin, T. C. (2019). The origin and evolution of cell-intrinsic antibacterial defenses in eukaryotes. Current opinion in genetics \& development, 58-59, 111–122. 
Added by: Dr. Enrique Feoli (23/11/2025, 22:03)   Last edited by: Dr. Enrique Feoli (12/12/2025, 17:25)
Resource type: Journal Article
DOI: 10.1016/j.gde.2019.09.002
ID no. (ISBN etc.): 0959-437X
BibTeX citation key: Richter2019
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 Categories: BioAcyl Corp
Subcategories: Anti-microbial peptides
Creators: Levin, Richter
Collection: Current opinion in genetics \& development		 Views: 5/55
Abstract
To survive in a world dominated by bacteria, eukaryotes have evolved numerous self-defense strategies. While some defenses are recent evolutionary innovations, others are ancient, with roots early in eukaryotic history. With a focus on antibacterial immunity, we highlight the evolution of pattern recognition receptors that detect bacteria, where diverse functional classes have been formed from the repeated use and reuse of a small set of protein domains. Next, we discuss core microbicidal strategies shared across eukaryotes, and how these systems may have been co-opted from ancient cellular mechanisms. We propose that studying antibacterial responses across diverse eukaryotes can reveal novel modes of defense, while highlighting the critical innovations that occurred early in the evolution of our own immune systems.
Added by: Dr. Enrique Feoli  Last edited by: Dr. Enrique Feoli
Notes
Process/Gene
Family		 Known
Antibacterial
Function(s)		 Experiment
al Evidence
in Group(s)		 Diagnostic
Protein
Domains (if
any)		 Genomic
Evidence in
Additional
Group(s)		 Likely
Evolved		 Non-
Immunity
Function(s)		 Reference(s)
TLRs (Toll-like receptors) Extracellular pattern recognition Metazoa TLR, transmembrane, TIR Choanoflagellatea Once, in Choanozoa Development (Metazoa) (,,)
Plant-type RLKs (receptor-like kinases, excluding lectins) Extracellular pattern recognition Streptophyta LRR, transmembrane, Pkinase All, except Apicomplexa Present in LECA and/or independently evolved in multiple groups Development, symbiosis (Streptophyta) (,)
NLRs (nucleotide-binding domain, leucine-rich repeat superfamily) Intracellular pattern recognition Metazoa, Streptophyta NACHT or NB-ARC, LRR Haptista, Dinophyceae, Diatomeae, Nucletmycea* Independently evolved in multiple groups Reproduction (Metazoa) (,,)
STING Cytosolic cyclic dinucleotide recognition Metazoa TMEM173 Choanoflagellatea Once, in Choanozoa - ()
cGAS Cytosolic DNA recognition Metazoa Mab-21 Choanoflagellatea Once, in Choanozoa - ()
Lectins Microbial sugar recognition and agglutination or recognition of host danger signals Amoebozoa, Metazoa, Streptophyta Diverse and widely distributed Present in LECA and/or independently evolved in multiple groups Adhesion, development, symbiosis (,)
Guanylate-binding proteins (GBPs) Target vacuolar and cytosolic bacteria for killing Metazoa GBP, GBP_C All, except Rhodophyta, Phaeophyceae, Euglenozoa Present in LECA Inhibits cell proliferation, migration (,)
Antimicrobial peptides Disruption of bacterial membranes and/or cell walls Amoebozoa, Metazoa, Nucletmycea, Streptophyta, Rhodophyta, Ciliophora, Heterolobosea Diverse and widely distributed Present in LECA and/or independently evolved in multiple groups Gut homeostasis (Metazoa), rhizobial symbiosis (Streptophyta) (,)
Lysozyme Disruption of bacterial cell walls Amoebozoa, Metazoa, Nucletmycea, Streptophyta Diverse and widely distributed Present in LECA - ()
Nitric oxide synthase (NOS) Production of NO for bacterial killing Metazoa NO_synthase, Flavodoxin, FAD_binding, NAD_binding Amorphea, Chlorophyta, Haptista, Dinophyceae, Cercozoa, Diatomeae, Chrysophyceae, Pelagophyceae, Euglenida** Present in LECA Intracellular and intercellular signaling (,)
NADPH oxidases (NOX, produce reactive oxygen species) Production of superoxide for bacterial killing Amoebozoa, Metazoa, Streptophyta, Rhodophyta, Phaeophyceae transmembrane(s), Ferric_reduct, transmembrane(s), FAD_binding, NAD_binding All, except Apicomplexa, Metamonada Present in LECA Intracellular and intercellular signaling (,-)
Nramp Removes metal ions and acidifies vacuoles Amoebozoa, Metazoa, Streptophyta Nramp, transmembrane(s) All, except Metamonada Present in LECA Metal ion scavenging for host metabolism ()
Mitochondria and chloroplast-mediated defenses Production of reactive oxygen species Metazoa, Streptophyta Not available - Present in LECA Photosynthe sis and respiration (,)
Autophagy (incl. xenophagy, etc.) Sequestering and killing of intracellular bacteria Amoebozoa, Metazoa, Streptophyta, Kinetoplastea Numerous genes and pathways All, but lost in species within Nucletmycea, Rhodophyta, Metamonada Present in LECA Disposal of compromised cellular material ()

Added by: Dr. Enrique Feoli  Last edited by: Dr. Enrique Feoli
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